What is the difference between a learning theory and an instructional design model?

The main difference is that a learning theory explains how people learn, while an instructional design model guides learning professionals on how to design effective materials. Learning theories, such as behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, provide a broader theoretical foundation, and then instructional design models offer practical frameworks based on them.

Is ADDIE a theory or a model?

ADDIE is an instructional design model, not a theory. This structural framework provides specific guidance on how to build learning programs rather than explaining learning theories. It organizes the instructional design process into five steps, including analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation, providing an established framework to follow.

Which instructional design theory is best for corporate training?

There is no single instructional design theory that is best for corporate training. The combination of approaches depends on the learning objectives, learners’ needs, available resources, and expected speed of training. For example, while spaced repetition is effective for long-term retention, experiential learning teaches decision-making.

Do modern e-learning designers still use classic theories?

Yes, designers still use instructional design theories, adapting them to modern e-learning formats. They combine established theories with newer research to achieve maximum efficiency.

12 Instructional Design Theories Every Designer Should Know

You probably stick to some elements of instructional design theories even without knowing it. If you focus on clear steps and an immediate reward, that’s behaviorism. If you take into account the cognitive load limitations, you follow cognitive learning theories.

Intuitive design helps share knowledge, but it can be messy. Without understanding instructional design models and theories, you are more likely to pile up incompatible activities. This makes learning initiatives less effective as they lack clear logic and structure.

In this article, we cover the key learning theories for instructional design and how to apply them. Find guidance on choosing the right approach for your project with practical examples. 🤩

Summary

Key takeaways

Learning theories and models rely on scientific research on how people memorize information and develop skills.
Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism are the main schools of instructional design theories.
An effective course typically combines several instructional design theories and models.
Standard design theories are still used for e-learning courses with minor adjustments and improvements.

Let’s create e-learning content that makes a difference

What is an instructional design theory?

An instructional design theory is an approach to creating learning materials based on specific principles and rules. It clarifies how to organize content, choose teaching methods, and combine activities to achieve desired learning outcomes. Learning theories are rooted in scientific findings on how people process information and build skills.

The use of a specific instructional design theory helps educators create logical and properly structured learning experiences. It also makes education evidence based and simplifies measuring the impact of different approaches to choose the most suitable one.

The three foundational schools of learning theory

Instructional design learning theories are closely related to multiple research studies on how people learn. They reflect different views that emerged over the 20th century with the spread of formal education and training. Educators were looking for the most effective way to teach people quickly and uniformly.

📌 Behaviorism

In behaviorism, learning is a change in observable behavior that happens thanks to external reinforcement and repetition. When a learner does something right, they get rewarded. When not, they receive negative feedback. Behaviorism relies on the idea of conditioning and positive reinforcement. This theory is particularly effective for training compliance and procedural tasks that require sticking to rules.

📌 Cognitivism

Cognitivism emphasizes the role of mental processes in learning, including attention, memory, and problem solving. This theory explores how the structure and form of learning materials help learners organize, store, and retrieve knowledge. It aims to reduce cognitive overload through chunking information, summaries, and analogies.

Illustration of a hand untangling lines inside a human head, symbolizing mental clarity or psychological therapy.

📌 Constructivism

Constructivism states that learners build knowledge by connecting new information to what they already know. It is a product of developmental psychology and Jean Piaget’s observations of children. The psychologist found that children learn from directly interacting with the world. This idea has since expanded to adult learning (andragogy) and other fields. Constructivist approaches focus on exploration, collaboration, and problem solving, which makes them effective for developing critical thinking and decision-making skills.

	Behaviorism	Cognitivism	Constructivism
How people learn	Conditioning (a system of rewards and punishments)	Processing, organizing, and retaining information	Active building of ideas based on previously known information
Role of the learner	Repeats desired behaviors	Actively processes new information	Explores, collaborates, and builds personal experience
Role of the instructor	Directs the lesson and rewards correct answers	Structures content to make information easier to process	Facilitates activities and problem solving
Best suited for	Compliance training, procedural tasks	Conceptual learning, knowledge retention	Experiential learning, critical thinking, problem solving

Even now, as new educational methods continue to emerge, most scholars draw on these schools of thought and the concepts they advanced.

12 Most popular instructional design theories and models

Each theory and model below offers a different lens on how people learn. You’ll rarely use just one in isolation, because most effective programs mix and match based on specific learning objectives, audience needs, and means of content delivery. Learn what these instructional design concepts mean and when to apply them below.

👉 ADDIE model

ADDIE stands for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. These are the steps to follow when developing learning experiences. Here’s what happens at each phase:

Analyze. Researching the target audience to understand what they already know and what to train.
Design. Setting and prioritizing the importance of learning objectives, selecting suitable tools, and planning.
Develop. Producing and testing the program based on the initial design and evaluating the results.
Implement. Modifying the program for maximum efficiency through collaboration between instructional designers and students.
Evaluate. Assessing the first results of program implementation in line with its learning objectives.

Note that these are not strict linear phases. You can always go from one to another when working on a learning program.

Image showing ADDIE model diagram with Evaluation at the center connected to Analyze, Design, Development, and Implement stages

Design: (Serhat Kurt. ADDIE Model: Instructional Design – Educational Technology. Educational Technology. 2017)

✏️ Use cases:

Corporate training;
Compliance programs;
Academic course development;
Government and enterprise learning.

👉 Kolb’s Experiential Learning

David Kolb’s Experiential Learning theory claims that people learn through the transformation of experience (Kolb’s Experiential Learning – Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2026). It happens in a four-stage cycle. Students get a Concrete Experience (CE), take time for Reflective Observation (RO), do Abstract Conceptualization (AC) by building new ideas or fixing old theories, and then test new findings through Active Experimentation (AE).

This approach encourages active learning and improves knowledge retention thanks to high engagement. But it also requires you to create meaningful learning experiences, which can be resource intensive.

Image showing Kolb's experiential learning cycle with concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation

Design: (Serhat Kurt. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory & Learning Styles – Educational Technology. Educational Technology. 2020)

✏️ Use cases:

Leadership training;
Practical skills training;
Professional development.

👉 Dick and Carey model

The Dick and Carey model, also known as the Systems Approach Model, explains how to deliver content in 10 steps. It’s an interconnected system of learning objectives, assessments, instructional strategies, and evaluation. First, you need to identify instructional goals, determine the desired skills through instructional analysis, and understand which of them students already have. Then, you set specific goals and objectives for the lesson, create assessments, outline your lesson plan accordingly, and prepare the materials. After running a lesson, you need to evaluate its efficiency and your instructional design approach overall.

This model is highly systemic and works well for complex curricula, such as a university’s certification program. It requires significant time to implement but provides a strong foundation for your course.

Image showing flowchart of the Dick and Carey instructional design model from identifying goals to summative evaluation

Design: (Serhat Kurt. Dick and Carey Instructional Model – Educational Technology. Educational Technology. 2015)

✏️ Use cases:

Higher education;
Technical training;
Certification programs.

👉 Elaboration theory

The elaboration theory by Charles Reigeluth claims that instructions should have an increasing order of difficulty (Christopher Pappas. Instructional Design Models and Theories: Elaboration Theory. ELearning Industry. 2014). You first give the big picture, teaching the basics. Then, add more detail and elaborate the concept. And finally, repeat everything and connect the knowledge.

Learners receive a summary of the previous lessons throughout each next one. A lesson must have clear sequences, starting with a general overview followed by more details. The elaboration theory also encourages the use of metaphors and analogies to help students relate the content to real-world scenarios and simplify learning.

This approach is great for long-term retention. It gives learners a clear sequence, breaking down complex subjects into more digestible chunks. At the same time, it requires continuous guidance and may not be suitable for independent learning.

✏️ Use cases:

Technical education;
STEM subjects.

👉Spaced learning theory

Spaced learning is a neuroscience-based approach stating that learners retain information better in smaller modules (Spaced Learning – Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2026). It strongly relies on how human memory works and the fact that people need repetition to transfer knowledge to long-term memory. Learning sessions are divided and distributed over time. For example, medical employees watch small HIPAA compliance videos and take quizzes every month, instead of one large annual training.

Micromodules and flashcard apps are common examples of the spaced learning theory. Such learning activities are relatively easy to implement. The major drawback is that they take more time to complete the course than traditional learning.

We provide e-learning content production services for educators and corporations.

✏️ Use cases:

Compliance training;
Language learning;
Employee onboarding.

👉 Kirkpatrick model

The Kirkpatrick model is used for evaluating training effectiveness. It covers four levels: Reaction, Learning, Behavior, and Results. Reaction is how participants respond to the course. Learning is what new skills and knowledge they have or have not obtained. Behavior is whether and how the participants apply the knowledge, mindset, or skills and what has changed. Results are the overall success of the training program for a business or organization.

These levels have a strict order and go after each other. Each subsequent level gives a more accurate measurement of the training course’s usefulness. Yet each level also requires more careful and time-consuming evaluation.

The Kirkpatrick model is popular for corporate training to demonstrate its value to businesses. You can implement it before, throughout, and following training.

Image showing Kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation — Reaction, Learning, Behavior, and Results

Design: (Serhat Kurt. Kirkpatrick Model: Four Levels of Learning Evaluation – Educational Technology. Educational Technology. 2016)

✏️ Use cases:

Corporate training evaluation;
Onboarding and compliance training;
Sales and customer service training;
L&D program assessment.

👉 SAM (Successive Approximation Model)

The SAM model relies on rapid prototyping and iterative feedback (Christopher Pappas. SAM Model: An Agile Approach To Instructional Design. ELearning Industry. 2024). It brings Agile in learning design, offering several steps you need to repeat while creating a learning program. The main stages include preparation, iterative design, and iterative development.

SAM encourages L&D professionals to create a quick prototype and gather feedback instead of aiming for a perfect solution. It’s a continuous process of iterative adjustments and testing. Such an approach makes SAM a good option for tight timelines and quick turnarounds.

Image showing Successive Approximation Model (SAM) with preparation, iterative design, and iterative development phases leading to rollout

Design: (Jennifer R. Grigsby. Successive Approximation Model. Grigsby. 2026.)

✏️ Use cases:

Fast-changing requirements;
Product training;
Software education;
Agile teams.

👉 Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction

This model by Robert M. Gagné helps instructors connect with students, covering the entire process from gaining attention to practice. This approach offers hands-on instructions on sharing knowledge efficiently, adapting to different learning styles. Here’s a brief overview of the nine events:

Gain attention. Make sure students are ready to perceive information by presenting a stimulus (e.g., a thought-provoking question, icebreaker).
Inform students about objectives. Describe required performance, criteria, and assessment before the course.
Stimulate recall of prior learning. Ask about previous course information or relevant experience to connect new information.
Present the content. Provide the same content in multiple formats and use active learning strategies.
Provide learning guidance. Offer scaffolding to remove it later when students become more independent and share additional materials (e.g., case studies, visualizations, analogies, etc.
Elicit performance. Practice new skills, ask students to collaborate with peers, and assign formative assessments.
Provide feedback. Share confirmatory and evaluative feedback and encourage peer review.
Assess performance. Test the progress using a variety of assessment methods for students with different learning styles.
Enhance retention. Give students opportunities to apply the learned information in real-life scenarios.

Image showing puzzle-piece diagram of Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction, from gaining attention to enhancing retention and transfer

Design: (Serhat Kurt. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction – Educational Technology. Educational Technology. 2021)

✏️ Use cases:

E-learning;
Classroom instruction;
Professional training.

👉 Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction

The instructional design framework by David Merril focuses on solving real-world problems (First Principles of Instruction – Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2012). It aims to activate prior knowledge, provide demonstrations, and practice skills. Merrill’s model combines five learning principles, as follows:

Task-centeredness demands relevant real-world tasks, progressing from simpler to more complex.
Activation is about engaging prior knowledge and experiences to facilitate new learning.
Demonstration requires clear models or examples that explain how to solve the task.
Application emphasizes activities that enable learners to actively apply obtained skills and knowledge.
Integration promotes transferring knowledge to real-world contexts.

Merrill’s principles are highly practical and supported by a growing body of research. A recent study on their effectiveness for training providers’ awareness of adolescent health recommendations showed notable improvement (Sarfi M. Effectiveness of Merrill’s First Principles Training on Providers’ Awareness of Adolescent Health Recommendations – PMC. NCBI Home Page. 2026). The main drawback is that such programs require lots of realistic learning activities and may be difficult to design.

✏️ Use cases:

Professional skills development;
Technical education;
Simulation-based learning.

👉 Cognitive load theory

The cognitive load theory, originally created by John Sweller, claims that human working memory has a limited capacity (Cognitive Load – Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2026). Therefore, when creating learning materials, you need to present information in smaller pieces. This way, you reduce the risk of cognitive overload that happens when students keep receiving new information but cannot process it.

Since the cognitive load theory is universal, you can combine it with other instructional design theories and models. It’s a great solution to improve comprehension and learning efficiency. Its only drawback is the need for careful content design and understanding how to create short, focused lessons.

Take your e-learning project to the next level with us

✏️ Use cases:

E-learning;
Technical and other complex subjects.

👉 Dual coding theory

The dual coding theory promotes presenting information through both verbal and visual channels (Dual-Coding Theory – Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 2026). Developed by Allan Paivio, it results from his research into how the brain processes information, encodes, and retrieves knowledge. In practice, this involves a combination of imagery and clear language. This approach reduces cognitive load and helps students understand complex concepts more easily. It also improves accessibility, as learners can choose the most convenient option to retrieve information.

This instructional design theory is easy to follow. Yet you will need design skills to create proper visuals and smoothly combine the two modes of information delivery.

✏️ Use cases:

E-learning;
Product training;
Educational videos.

👉 Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a framework that classifies learning objectives into six cognitive levels (Bloom’s Taxonomy – Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 2026). It’s a hierarchy of Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create. Students move through a pyramid and need to achieve the outlined learning outcomes before moving to the next level.

Taxonomy is commonly used to develop courses and organize materials for students. It helps create appropriate activities for each level and make sure they match learning objectives. The main limitation is that learning is not always sequential, so you may need to use this approach more flexibly.

Design: (Serhat Kurt. Bloom’s Taxonomy – Educational Technology. Educational Technology. 2020)

✏️ Use cases:

Curriculum planning;
Assessment design;
Learning objectives development.

This list doesn’t include all the models and theories of instructional design. There is also the Kemp design model, Gerlach-Ely model, anchored instruction model, backward design, and many other approaches. The choice depends on why you are launching a learning initiative and who your students are.

How to choose the right theory or model for your project

You can find more details on learning design vs instructional design differences in our blog post.

Top instructional design strategies for e-learning typically result from a combination of multiple instructional design theories and models.

For example, you can use the ADDIE model to plan, develop, and manage the project. Then apply Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction or elaboration theory to decide how to organize lessons. Next, use spaced learning and cognitive load theory when working on learning materials, and finally apply the Kirkpatrick model to measure the effectiveness of the course.

The choice depends on four factors:

Learning objectives (conceptual mastery vs. compliance vs. decision-making);
Audience needs and existing knowledge;
Timeline and budget (SAM is faster; ADDIE is thorough);
Delivery format (online vs. blended favors different approaches).

However, there is no need to learn everything before planning a course. As part of our instructional design services, our senior-level specialists advise on which options will make your training effective. Here we compiled a mini decision matrix as a starting point:

YOUR SITUATION	START HERE
Tight timeline, fast-changing requirements	SAM (Successive Approximation) + Iterative feedback loops
Long-term retention & knowledge building	Spaced Learning + Cognitive Load Theory + Elaboration Theory for complex subjects
Decision-making & critical thinking	Kolb’s Experiential Learning + Merrill’s First Principles
Large, complex curriculum	ADDIE (backbone structure) + Dick & Carey for detailed planning
Engagement & skill practice	Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction + Dual Coding Theory (visuals + text)
Measuring program success	Layer any approach above + Kirkpatrick model for evaluation (works for all programs)

Most effective programs combine 3–4 approaches from different

rows.

Examples of instructional design theories in modern e-learning

Although most of the listed theories were intended for offline learning, with small adjustments, they can be equally effective online. The way human memory works hasn’t changed with the shift to digital.

Here’s how the listed design theories may work in practice:

Online course development for Studio SE. The L&D team used backward design to define the business goal and desired learning outcomes before selecting the course content and activities. Because mastering model-based systems engineering (MBSE) requires practical application, the course drew on Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory. Learners could test and apply concepts using a SysML simulator, supporting active experimentation. The curriculum was also divided into 20 focused subtopics, helping reduce cognitive load and making the complex subject easier to process.
E‑learning course for Gen‑Z. Our team partnered with the InnoEnergy Skills Institute to create a Storyline-based course that introduces learners to different job roles. The development process combined structured phase-by-phase approvals with elements of the Successive Approximation Model. Within each phase, the course was refined iteratively based on real-time feedback before the team moved to the next stage. The learning experience also drew on dual coding theory and Bloom’s Taxonomy. Visuals and written explanations worked together to present the roles, while activities progressed from understanding them to comparing career paths, analyzing responsibilities, and completing more complex tasks.
Online course for UNFPA. This comprehensive course explores diverse relationship dynamics for a global audience. ADDIE provided the overall project structure, beginning with a detailed analysis of the target audience. During the design and development stages, we used SAM-inspired iterations to refine the course based on user feedback. In this way, ADDIE guided the broader process, while iterative development allowed the content and learning experience to evolve.

Studio SE – Case Study

View demo

Summing up

Instructional design theories appeared years ago, but they are still working. They explain how people gain knowledge and how human memory works to find effective training approaches. A program that relies on solid theory is almost always more effective than one with random combinations of activities. It has a clear structure and logic, guiding students step by step.

The choice of an instructional design theory and model can determine whether you manage to achieve your learning objectives. If you need consulting and practical help with learning experience design, contact our e-learning development team for professional services.